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Saturday, July 20, 2019

MICROBIOLOGY SCOPE


MICROBIOLOGY SCOPE
·         Biomedical scientist.
·         Biotechnologist.
·         Clinical research associate.
·         Food technologist.
·         Healthcare scientist, immunology.
·         Medicinal chemist.
·         Microbiologist.
·         Nanotechnologist.

Employers value the scientific, analytical and problem-solving skills developed by microbiology graduates
Job options
Jobs directly related to your degree include:
  • Biomedical scientist
  • Biotechnologist
  • Clinical research associate
  • Food technologist
  • Healthcare scientist, immunology
  • Medicinal chemist
  • Microbiologist
  • Nanotechnologist
  • Pharmacologist
  • Research scientist (life sciences)
  • Technical brewer
  • Water quality scientist
Jobs where your degree would be useful include:
  • Ecologist
  • Environmental engineer
  • Forensic scientist
  • Marine biologist
  • Physician associate
  • Science writer
Remember that many employers accept applications from graduates with any degree subject, so don't restrict your thinking to the jobs listed here.
Take a few minutes to answer the Job Match quiz and find out what careers would suit you
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Work experience
Pre-entry experience in a laboratory is useful if you're thinking of a science-based career. Some degree courses include a year's work placement undertaking scientific research in industry, a government research laboratory or another relevant organization.
Some companies provide funding to support research work in laboratories over the summer. Contact your careers service for information on these opportunities and other internships. Also, contact local hospital laboratories to find out about work experience or work shadowing opportunities.
Membership of a relevant society or professional body such as the Society for Applied Microbiology (SfAM) or the Microbiology Society provides valuable networking opportunities and access to grants and free or discounted conference attendance.
Search for placements and find out more about work experience and internships.
Typical employers
Microbiology overlaps with other areas of biology such as genetics, molecular biology and immunology. This means there are opportunities for a microbiology-related career in a wide range of sectors. Typical employers include:
  • healthcare organizations such as the NHS and private hospitals
  • public health organizations such as Public Health England
  • environmental organizations
  • industry - food and drink, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, toiletries, water and biotechnology companies
  • forensic science laboratories
  • publicly funded research organizations
  • higher education institutions.
Find information on employers in science and pharmaceuticals, healthcare, teaching training and education and other job sectors.
Skills for your CV
Studying microbiology helps you to develop a variety of subject-specific skills. These include the ability to:
  • employ a range of investigative, recording and analysis techniques
  • prepare, interpret and present data, using statistical programmes, qualitative and quantitative techniques and spreadsheets
  • conduct literature searches and critically evaluate information
  • undertake practical laboratory investigations in a safe, responsible and ethical manner
  • apply scientific thought, rationales and approaches.
You also develop other more general skills, including:
  • teamwork and the ability to work on your own initiative
  • a flexible approach to work
  • problem-solving skills
  • communication
  • time management and organizational skills
  • the ability to evaluate your own performance and that of others.
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Further study
Some microbiology graduates go on to further study at Masters or PhD level in subjects such as:
  • biochemistry
  • bioinformatics
  • biotechnology
  • environmental microbiology
  • genetics
  • medical microbiology
  • molecular biology.
In some cases this can lead to an academic or government research career.
If you want to work as an NHS healthcare scientist in microbiology, you'll need to undertake further training via the NHS Scientist Training Programme, which includes study at Masters level in clinical science (infection sciences).
It's also possible to proceed to a graduate-entry programme in medicine.
Some microbiology graduates choose to diversify by studying subjects such as computing, science communication and journalism. You can also choose to take further study in areas such as marketing, finance, business, teaching and law.
For more information on further study and to find a course that interests you, see Masters degrees and search postgraduate courses.
What do microbiology graduates do?
Fewer than half of microbiology graduates enter employment within six months of graduation, while over half go on to further study or combine work with further study.
Graduates enter a range of science and technician roles, while many that undertake further study choose to specialize in a particular area of microbiology.
Destination
Percentage
Employed
37.2
Further study
46.2
Working and studying
6.1
Unemployed
5.5
Other
5
Graduate destinations for microbiology
Type of work
Percentage
Technicians and other professionals
20.3
Retail, catering and bar work
18.7
Science professionals
14.9
Business, HR and financial
11.8
Other
34.3
Types of work entered in the UK
Find out what other graduates are doing six months after finishing their degrees in What Do Graduates Do?
Graduate destinations data from the Higher Education Statistics Agency.


You'll need strong analytical skills and practical laboratory experience to work as a biomedical scientist
As a biomedical scientist, you'll carry out a range of laboratory and scientific tests on tissue samples and fluids to help clinicians diagnose and treat diseases. You'll also evaluate the effectiveness of treatments.
Your work is extremely important to many hospital departments, such as operating theatres and A&E, and the functions you carry out are wide ranging. For example, you may work on medical conditions such as cancer, diabetes or AIDS, screen for and monitor a range of diseases or carry out tests for emergency blood transfusions.
Types of biomedical scientist
Biomedical scientists usually specialise in one of four areas: infection sciences, blood sciences, cellular sciences or genetics and molecular pathology.
Infection sciences includes:
  • medical microbiology - identification of micro-organisms causing disease and their antibiotic treatment
  • virology - identification of viruses, associated diseases and monitoring the effectiveness of vaccines.
Blood sciences includes:
  • clinical chemistry - analysis of body fluids and toxicology studies
  • transfusion science - determination of donor/recipient blood compatibility, ensuring blood banks are sufficient
  • haematology - form and functions of blood and related diseases
  • immunology - understanding the immune system and its role in combating disease.
Cellular sciences includes:
  • histopathology - microscopic examination of diseased tissue samples
  • cytology - best known for cervical smear screening, but also covers other cellular analysis.
Genetics and molecular pathology includes:
  • genetics - study of genes and hereditary variations in genes
  • molecular pathology - study and diagnosis of disease through examination of tissues and fluids at molecular level.
Responsibilities
As a biomedical scientist you'll need to:
  • perform routine and specialist analytical testing on a range of biological samples
  • give test results to medical staff, who use the information to diagnose and treat the patient's illness
  • process patient samples in good time and make sure that turnaround times for reporting results are achieved
  • prioritise your workload and perform urgent analytical testing as required
  • identify abnormal or unexpected results and report back and follow up with requesting clinicians
  • maintain and run specialist lab equipment
  • maintain and order stocks of materials
  • answer telephone enquiries about test results and other general lab issues
  • accurately record data, write reports and share results
  • develop new methods of investigation and keep up to date with diagnostic innovations
  • support the lab's quality management system and observe all relevant health and safety regulations
  • supervise, mentor and support trainee biomedical scientists and other support staff
  • keep your professional knowledge up to date and take responsibility for your continuing professional development (CPD).
Salary
  • Starting salaries in the NHS range from £22,128 to £28,746 (Band 5).
  • With experience and/or specialist knowledge, you can earn a salary of £26,565 to £35,577 (Band 6).
  • As a senior biomedical scientist, you can expect to earn £31,696 to £48,514 (Band 7/8a). Salaries for consultant biomedical scientists, who have reached the top of their profession, are higher.
Income data for NHS salaries from pay bands agreed under the Agenda for change pay rates.
Figures are intended as a guide only.
Working hours
If you're employed by the NHS, you'll generally work a standard 37.5 hour week. A flexible approach to work is essential to cover day, evening, night and weekend working.
Some opportunities exist for part-time work or job sharing. Self-employment is unlikely as it's rarely possible to set up an independent laboratory.

What to expect

  • Although work is mostly laboratory based, you may have some patient contact. As a biomedical scientist, you must not offer clinical advice and in some cases, there is a strict 'no contact with the public' policy. However, in some roles you may be doing near-patient testing, e.g. 'bedside'.
  • The profession is governed by a strict code of ethics, which includes patient confidentiality.
  • You'll work as part of a team that includes healthcare science staff, doctors and nurses.
  • Vacancies are available across the UK in hospitals and private sector laboratories.
  • Although you won't usually need to travel during the working day or spend time away from home, travel between sites may be necessary.

Qualifications

You'll need to be registered with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) to work as a biomedical scientist in the UK.
To achieve this you need to complete a BSc (Hons) degree in biomedical science accredited by the Institute of Biomedical Science (IBMS) or approved by the HCPC. You will also need to successfully complete a period of clinical laboratory training in an IBMS-approved laboratory, where you'll complete the IBMS Registration Portfolio.
IBMS-accredited undergraduate biomedical science degrees are offered by universities on a full-time, part-time, sandwich and integrated basis.
Integrated degrees will include a laboratory placement in an IBMS-approved laboratory, during which you'll complete the IBMS Registration Training Portfolio. On successful completion of your degree, you will be awarded an IBMS Certificate of Competence to show you're eligible to apply to the HCPC for registration as a biomedical scientist.
If your IBMS-accredited degree doesn't have an integrated placement, you'll need to arrange a laboratory placement and complete the IBMS Registration Training Portfolio either during a sandwich year or once you've finished your degree.
Alternatively, you can take a BSc (Hons) degree in healthcare science (life sciences) through the NHS Practitioner Training Programme (PTP), which must be accredited by the IBMS or approved by the HCPC if you want to be eligible to apply for registration as a biomedical scientist when you graduate. Completion of the IBMS Registration Training Portfolio is integral to this programme.
It's also possible to work as a trainee biomedical scientist if you have A-levels (or equivalent) in life sciences, but only if your employer is willing to offer financial support and the time off to study for an accredited degree on a part-time basis or as part of an IBMS-accredited apprenticeship programme.
If your degree isn't accredited by the IBMS, contact them to have your degree assessed and they'll advise on whether or not you need additional academic education. See the IBMS website for a list of accredited degree courses.

Skills

You will need to have:
  • practical laboratory skills and manual dexterity
  • analytical skills
  • patience and the ability to work accurately and efficiently
  • the ability to prioritise tasks and meet deadlines
  • a willingness to accept responsibility and use common sense
  • flexibility and the ability to work with a range of equipment and techniques
  • communication and team working skills
  • the ability to work under pressure while maintaining standards of service
  • the ability to work alone or under instruction
  • attention to detail
  • IT skills.

Work experience

It's worth arranging a visit to a local hospital diagnostic/medical laboratory before applying for courses to get a feel for the type of work carried out.
Many IBMS-accredited courses will offer a placement or sandwich year as part of your degree course. The NHS advertises jobs for laboratory assistants or you could try to set up your own placement.
Competition for trainee positions is fierce as there are limited opportunities, so check job adverts regularly and contact hospitals directly. Most hospitals will have an approved training laboratory, although this doesn't automatically mean that they will take on a trainee. A placement or other work experience in a laboratory and evidence of medical interest is useful.

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Employers

The NHS is one of the main employers of biomedical scientists. Work is generally carried out in clinical pathology laboratories and regional laboratories. You could also work for NHS Blood and Transplant or Public Health England, or in pathology and research laboratories in private sector hospitals.
Other employers include:
  • Food Standards Agency
  • forensic laboratories
  • government departments
  • Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
  • HM armed forces
  • Medical Research Council (MRC)
  • some manufacturing firms, especially those producing pharmaceutical products
  • universities
  • veterinary services.
There are also opportunities to work on healthcare projects worldwide with international non-governmental and voluntary organisations such as:
  • Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO)
  • World Health Organization (WHO)
Look for jobs vacancies at:
  • Biomedical Scientist Jobs
  • Career scene - the biomedical science career network
  • New Scientist Jobs
  • NHS Jobs
Specialist recruitment agencies such as Lambed and Med placements also advertise vacancies.

Professional development

In the first two years after registering with the HCPC, you'll normally continue your professional development by taking the IBMS Specialist Diploma, a specialised professional qualification. The Diploma is offered in a range of disciplines:
  • cellular pathology
  • clinical biochemistry
  • clinical immunology
  • cytopathology
  • haematology with hospital transfusion practice
  • histocompatibility and immunogenetics
  • medical microbiology
  • transfusion science
  • virology.
You'll need to provide evidence of your training, specialist knowledge, practical skills and competency via a portfolio, laboratory tour and oral examination.
It's also possible to take the IBMS Diploma in Biomedical Science and Diploma of Specialist Practice.
As your career develops, there are opportunities to take IBMS higher and expert qualifications. These are aimed at biomedical scientists looking to move into management or who want to show advanced skills in their specialist area. At the highest level, you can work towards IBMS Advanced Specialist Diplomas. It's also possible to further your knowledge and expertise via an MSc or PhD. For details of post-registration professional development opportunities, see IBMS Education.
With the right combination of experience, knowledge and skills, you may be eligible for registered scientist (RSci) or chartered scientist (CSci) status through the Science Council. For full registration criteria, see the Science Council professional registers.

Career prospects

Opportunities for career development are generally good. There's a set career structure in place in the NHS and you'll need to show you have the required skills, experience and knowledge to progress through the pay bands.
Upon qualification, many biomedical scientists choose to specialise in a particular area of biomedical science and progress to senior and specialist roles.
With further experience and qualifications, for example an MSc or PhD, it's possible to reach the top of the profession by becoming a consultant biomedical scientist.
Senior roles often involve managing a team or department within a laboratory, or managing a particular area of service provision such as health and safety, quality management or service delivery. You may also become involved in advanced specialist scientific work, clinical research or training and education. For information about careers in biomedical research, see The Academy of Medical Sciences.
Some biomedical scientists choose a postgraduate route to other clinical roles, such as endocrinology, or you may wish to move into health promotion or the commercial sector in product development or scientific sales and marketing

Biotechnologists use biological organisms to develop or make innovative products designed to improve health, food and the world around us
As a biotechnologist you'll study the genetic, chemical and physical attributes of cells, tissues and organisms in order to develop new technologies, processes and products that will improve the quality of human life.
The role involves manipulating living organisms or their components to design or enhance vaccines, medicines, energy efficiency or food productivity and safety.
In recent years, the growth of UK biotechnology has been phenomenal. You can find work at biotechnology and other commercial companies, research or higher education institutions, government laboratories and hospitals.
Large biotechnology companies tend to use the term biotechnologist as a job title. Others use titles such as laboratory technician, research assistant, genomic technologist, flow technologist or bioprocessing engineer. If the position involves using live organisms and biomolecular processes within a biotechnological discipline, it's likely to be a biotechnologist role.

Types of biotechnologist

Biotechnologists use a variety of scientific disciplines to improve processes for a range of different industries including pharmaceuticals, healthcare, biofuels, agriculture, conservation, animal husbandry and food production.
Types of biotechnology include:
  • environmental - detecting and controlling pollution and contamination in the environment, industrial waste, and agricultural chemicals, creating renewable energy and designing biodegradable materials to reduce humanity's ecological footprint
  • medical and health - using live organisms or biomolecular processes to develop and improve treatments, identify inherited diseases, cure certain disorders, and even lead to organ regeneration
  • industrial - using cloning and enzyme production to preserve and enhance the taste in food and drink, and developing enzymes to remove stains from clothing at lower washing temperatures
  • agricultural biotechnology - improving animal feed and genetically modifying crops to increase pest resistance and productivity
  • biofuels - using organic compounds to reduce the cost of bio-refining reagents and put biofuels on an equal footing with fossil fuels, and creating chemicals from renewable biomass to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
  • marine and aquatic biotechnology - increasing the yields of farmed fish and designing disease-resistant strains of oysters and vaccines against certain viruses that can infect fish.
You would usually specialise in one area of biotechnology, such as:
  • biochemistry - microbiology, forensics, plant science and medicine
  • cancer studies - detection and treatment
  • genetics - detecting heredity, genetic variation and DNA repair
  • molecular biology - DNA, RNA and protein synthesis function
  • microbial sciences - antibiotic-resistant bacteria and improving fermentation
  • pharmacology - drug action on biological systems
  • stem cell research - modification and regenerative medicine
  • virology - viruses and viral diseases.

Responsibilities

The amount of responsibility you'll have will depend on your level of seniority within your specific discipline and the type of company you work for.
However, you'll typically need to:
  • create, conduct and monitor experiments using live organisms or biomolecular processes in a laboratory setting to solve problems, improve processes and develop new products
  • use scientific knowledge to follow different methodologies to achieve results
  • perform data analysis on your experiments and interpret findings to support scientific investigations
  • record and disseminate results accurately in reports and via presentations
  • set up, maintain and operate standard laboratory equipment and computers
  • work independently and collaboratively with other scientists
  • work to health, safety and environmental regulations and meet quality standards
  • keep up to date with new advances in biotechnology to develop new techniques, products or practices.

Salary

  • The starting salary for graduates generally falls between £18,000 and £24,000.
  • The salary range for experienced (over five years' experience) biotechnologists can be between £25,000 and £50,000.
  • Salaries in highly experienced roles (ten or more years) with additional responsibilities can rise to £60,000.
Your salary will vary depending on your area of focus and the industry you're working in. Salaries tend to be higher in large companies within the private commercial sector, particularly at senior level.
Income figures are intended as a guide only.

Working hours

Biotechnologist positions tend to be on a permanent contract, particularly outside academia. A standard working week can range between 35 to 40 hours. However, it's common to work shifts, nights and weekends when conducting experiments that need continuous monitoring.

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What to expect

  • Work is often carried out in modern laboratories at hospitals, industrial lab units, factories or universities. You'll typically be working in sterile conditions and will need to wear protective clothing, such as a lab coat and safety glasses.
  • You'll usually conduct experiments individually but will sometimes work collaboratively to achieve a common goal. Sharing information with your supervisor and colleagues is typical, and you may also need to attend conference calls or international conferences and produce research papers.
  • Expect to use a range of standard and highly-specialised laboratory equipment and computerised machines to produce results, at times to a short deadline.
  • Biotechnologist opportunities are available across the UK but mainly in the biotech golden triangle of London, Oxford, and Cambridge, as well as in Scotland. Opportunities are also available overseas, particularly in the USA.
  • You may need to travel to enhance your knowledge and understanding of a specific Qualifications
You'll typically need an organic science degree, usually a 2:1 or above, to get into biotechnology. The following subjects are particularly useful:
  • biochemistry
  • biological sciences
  • biology (crop and plant science, environmental)
  • biomedical engineering
  • biomedical science
  • biotechnology
  • chemistry or chemical engineering
  • microbiology
  • molecular biology
  • pharmacology.
Some employers will also ask for a postgraduate qualification (MSc or MRes). Having a postgraduate qualification, such as a Masters or PhD, is particularly important if you want to follow a career in research or academia.
Employers may expect you to have some knowledge of the specific area of biotechnology you want to go into, like the food and drink industry. You'll usually receive specific training on the job, but will need to have laboratory skills and some experience of working in a lab.
Some large pharmaceutical and medical companies offer structured graduate training programmes, and some employers may support you to complete a postgraduate qualification. Competition is fierce for a place on a training scheme.
Although advanced apprenticeships (where A-levels or equivalent are required) are advertised as a possible career route, biotechnologist positions of this nature are rare.

Skills

You'll need to have:
  • an aptitude for bioscience with the ability to solve social problems
  • an enquiring mind and the ability to work with abstract concepts
  • patience, and the ability to work methodically and meticulously when following scientific techniques and company procedures
  • good hand-eye coordination and the ability to use technical equipment with accuracy
  • excellent communication skills, both written and verbal
  • the ability to analyse and interpret statistical and technical data
  • the initiative to work well as both part of a team and independently
  • good computer skills to record data and write scientific reports.

Work experience

Try to secure work experience in a laboratory setting as this will significantly improve your chances of finding full-time employment. Although large companies tend to advertise formal opportunities, you'll need to make targeted speculative applications to small and medium-sized companies or research units to find out about opportunities. You can also get some experience through work shadowing or insight days and internships.
An industrial placement year can be particularly useful and will help you develop your lab skills as well as a network of contacts.
While any lab experience will be a great help to your career prospects, try to gain experience relevant to your field of interest to enhance your application.
Experience that develops your commercial awareness is also looked on favourably as many employers are keen to employ biotechnologists with an understanding of business.

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Employers

Large private biotech companies tend to advertise positions with a focus on medical, pharmaceutical and biochemical disciplines, while small and medium-sized enterprises often advertise positions using a different job title.
Jobs are available with:
  • biotechnology and genetic engineering firms
  • food and drink manufacturers
  • environmental and conservation (sewage and waste treatment, fuel, pollutant degradation) companies
  • government and charity research institutes
  • horticulture and agriculture organisations (food and drink science)
  • NHS and private hospitals
  • pharmaceutical and chemical companies
  • private clinical research companies (genetics, disease detection, therapy, etc.)
  • universities.
Look for job vacancies at:
  • Chemistry World Jobs
  • Footman jobs
  • Medley
  • New Scientist Jobs
  • UK Bioindustry Association
Specialist recruitment agencies such as CK Science and SRG also advertise vacancies.

Professional development

You'll usually have a company induction, which includes health and safety training and, in some cases, control of substances hazardous to health (COSHH) regulations training.
You're also likely to receive specific training to develop essential biotechnological techniques, and these skills can be tested to ensure you meet company standards.
You may join a structured graduate training programme, which can take one to three years to complete. Some employers might financially support part-time study for postgraduate qualifications.
If you're on a permanent contract, you'll have an annual personal development plan, which is discussed with and agreed by your line manager. As part of this plan, you'll be encouraged to attend conferences and workshops to enhance your technical skills and understanding.
The following organisations provide further information on training and continuing professional development in various areas of biotechnology:
  • Agricultural Biotechnology Council
  • Biochemical Society
  • Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council
  • Institute of Biomedical Science (IBMS)
  • Institute of Science & Technology (IST)
  • Royal Society of Biology (RSB)

Career prospects

It's possible with experience to progress to a senior scientist position or into a supervisory or consultancy position. Opportunities for career progression vary depending on the type and size of company you work for, your area of specialism and your qualifications and skills. You may need to move company in order to move up the career ladder.
Taking additional professional or academic qualifications can increase your career prospects, particularly in academia. If you're following a career in academia, it's important to get your research published in journals related to your area of expertise. Securing funding for research projects will also help your career prospects.
There may be opportunities to move into another area of an organisation, for example in business development, production, information and data technology, or a into a regulatory role. Alternatively, some biotechnologists move into related careers such as scientific writing and journalism, or into quality assurance management, sales and marketing.
Put your nursing, life sciences or medical sciences degree to good use in the competitive but growing field of clinical drug research
A clinical research associate (CRA) runs clinical trials to test drugs for their effectiveness, risks and benefits to ensure that they are safe to allow on to the market. You'll work on new and existing drugs and will usually be employed by either a pharmaceutical company or a contract research organisation (CRO), which works on behalf of pharmaceutical companies.
You'll typically be involved in all stages of the clinical trial, including identifying an investigational site and setting up, initiating, monitoring and closing down the trial.
Clinical trials may be carried out at various stages or phases and include trials on healthy humans, trials on patients with a disease, and studies conducted after the launch of a new drug to monitor safety and side effects.
Responsibilities
Your tasks will vary depending on the employer and your level of experience. However, you'll typically need to:
  • develop and write trial protocols (outlining purpose and methodology)
  • present trial protocols to a steering committee
  • design data collection forms, known as case report forms (CRFs)
  • coordinate with the ethics committee, which safeguards the rights, safety and wellbeing of all trial subjects
  • manage regulatory authority applications and approvals that oversee the research and marketing of new and existing drugs
  • identify and assess the suitability of facilities to use as the clinical trial site
  • identify/select an investigator who will be responsible for conducting the trial at the trial site
  • liaise with doctors, consultants or investigators on conducting the trial
  • set up the trial sites - ensuring each centre has the trial materials, including the trial drug often known as the investigational medicinal product (IMP)
  • train the site staff to trial-specific industry standards
  • monitor the trial throughout its duration, which involves visiting the trial sites on a regular basis
  • verify that data entered on to the CRFs is consistent with patient clinical notes, known as source data/document verification (SDV)
  • collect completed CRFs from hospitals and general practices
  • write visit reports and file and collate trial documentation and reports
  • ensure all unused trial supplies are accounted for
  • close down trial sites on completion of the trial
  • discuss results with a medical statistician, who writes technical trial reports
  • archive study documentation and correspondence
  • prepare final reports and occasionally manuscripts for publication.
Salary
  • Starting salaries for CRAs are in the region of £23,000 to £30,000. It's likely these posts will require some experience in a related area.
  • As a senior CRA (SCRA), also known as a CRA II, you can earn a salary of around £30,000 to £48,000.
  • In some senior roles, salaries of in excess of £55,000 can be achieved.
Salaries vary from company to company. Additional benefits, such as a car allowance and bonus and pension, are typically offered.
Income figures are intended as a guide only.
Working hours
Working conditions vary between companies, although the hours are usually full time, Monday to Friday. You should expect to work some evenings, although weekend or shift work is uncommon.
Part-time work is possible, as are career breaks. Short term contracts of six to 12 months with a company are common, meaning you may work more like a contractor than a permanent employee.
What to expect
  • If you're field-based you will mainly be on the road, dealing with doctors and research nurses in trial centres, GP practices or hospitals. Some companies have in-house, office-based CRA roles with virtually no site visit responsibilities. In these cases, the focus in this role is on document review and management. There are also a number of home-based jobs available. Work may be done in teams or individually.
  • Most UK pharmaceutical companies are located in the south of England. Field-based positions are generally found in key locations throughout the UK. Some jobs, for example in a company laboratory, can be found locally, while others are regionally based.
  • Self-employment or freelance work is possible once you've become experienced.
  • The job can involve a lot of travelling, especially if working in a field-based role. You may be out of the office three or four days a week, possibly including overnight stays. Some companies operate a system whereby the CRA specialises in a specific disease area and covers the whole of the UK. Others operate their CRAs on a regional basis.
  • Working for an international company may involve coordinating trials abroad.
Qualifications
To become a clinical research associate (CRA) you need to have either a degree or postgraduate qualification in nursing, life sciences or medical sciences.
This could include subjects such as:
  • anatomy
  • biochemistry
  • biology
  • biomedical science
  • chemistry
  • immunology
  • microbiology
  • molecular biology
  • pharmacology or pharmacy
  • physiology
  • toxicology.
Entry without a degree or with a HND only is unlikely. You might occasionally be able to enter from the administration side - for example, you could start as a study-site coordinator in the NHS or as a clinical trials administrator. However, you would need substantial experience and further qualifications to progress.
A postgraduate qualification could give you valuable experience in clinical trials and an advantage against competition when applying for jobs. A relevant PhD can also be advantageous in some companies, who may consider it as highly-relevant work experience counting towards gaining promotion to senior positions or moving into protocol development.
Search for postgraduate courses in clinical research or clinical trials.
Skills
You'll need to have:
  • excellent communication, both written and verbal, and interpersonal skills
  • the ability to build effective relationships with trial centre staff and colleagues
  • the ability to motivate others
  • strong customer focus
  • an excellent grasp of numeracy and a keen eye for detail
  • presentation skills
  • the ability to multitask and think on your feet
  • project management skills
  • a flexible and adaptable approach to work
  • organisational, IT and administrative skills - the job involves a lot of documenting and recording information through computerised processes, such as clinical trial management systems and electronic data capture
  • an understanding of the importance of good clinical practice (GCP), which is a legal requirement for all CRAs.
You'll usually need a clean driving licence for travel between trial sites and your office.
Skills in an additional language, such as Dutch, French, Italian or Russian, may also be useful for roles abroad.
Work experience
Without relevant experience, you're likely to start work at a lower level, as a clinical data coordinator or clinical trials administrator, where you won't be involved in initiating or designing the trials. Once you've gained experience, you will then move on to a full CRA position.
A small number of companies may recruit graduates without experience if they have the necessary personal skills, but it's a good idea to get some pre-entry experience if possible. This can include any work that uses scientific and analytical skills, for example:
  • academic or pharmaceutical research
  • clinical data work
  • clinical laboratory work
  • medical sales
  • nursing
  • pharmacy.
Competition for jobs is strong and work experience in a clinically-relevant field will considerably improve your chances.
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Employers
Typical employers include pharmaceutical companies or contract research organisations (CROs), which conduct research on behalf of pharmaceutical companies.
A CRO will organise the placement of a CRA on behalf of the sponsor (the pharmaceutical company) and may be involved in planning, organising and conducting the whole study or just part of it. The CRA will report back to the organisation and will feed back to the sponsor.
Large contract organisations are more likely to recruit an inexperienced graduate into a monitoring role and provide the training to progress to the level of a CRA.
Hospital academic departments occasionally employ CRAs in clinical trials units.
Look for job vacancies at:
Contract research organisations and pharmaceutical companies may advertise vacancies on their own websites.
Professional development
Training takes place mainly in-house and on the job. The nature of the training can vary from company to company, with some employers providing a structured system.
Some companies will pay for relevant external training courses through organizations such as the Institute of Clinical Research (ICR). They provide training in areas such as:
  • effective clinical trial project management
  • risk-based monitoring
  • skills and competencies of a clinical trials manager
  • the principles of GCP.
You can also complete the ICR Certificate and Diploma to provide evidence of your clinical research knowledge and skills. To progress through the membership levels, you'll need to undertake a certain amount of continuing professional development (CPD) each year.
If you don't already have a postgraduate qualification, you can take a postgraduate certificate, diploma or Masters in areas such as:
  • clinical pharmacology
  • clinical pharmacy
  • clinical research
  • pharmaceutical medicine.
It's also possible to do a PhD. These courses can facilitate professional development and career advancement.
Career prospects
Career structures vary from company to company. How quickly you move up the grades depends on a range of factors including motivation, the opportunities available for training and development, ability and previous experience.
Before becoming a CRA, you may begin at a lower level such as a clinical trial administrator or junior CRA. As a CRA (also known as a CRA I), you'll work on pre-trial procedures, setting up and organising clinical trial sites (with some supervision), archiving documents and correspondence.
With the right combination of skills and experience you can move into the role of senior CRA (SCRA), also known as a CRA II. Work will include selecting investigators, coordinating ethics committee and regulatory authority applications, supervising trial supplies and attending investigator meetings.
As you progress further you'll also be responsible for supervising, training and mentoring junior staff, project management of whole trials (possibly on an international scale), protocol development and design of case report forms (CRFs).
If you work within a contract research organisation you can build up and widen your experience with a variety of sponsor pharmaceutical companies in different therapeutic areas and in different phases of clinical research. This could allow you to move to a pharmaceutical company.
Self-employment may be possible, as CRAs are employed on a freelance basis by certain companies. This should usually only be considered when you have developed experience, contacts and clients

Relevant work experience is the key to a successful career in the increasingly competitive food technology industry
As a food technologist, it's your job to make sure food products are produced safely, legally and to the quality claimed. You could be involved in developing the manufacturing processes and recipes of food and drink products and may work on existing and newly-discovered ingredients to invent new recipes and concepts.
You may modify foods to create products such as fat-free items and ready meals and will often work closely with the product development teams to help deliver factory-ready recipes, based on development kitchen samples. Keeping up with ever-changing food production regulations will be an essential part of your job.
Responsibilities
As a food technologist, you'll need to:
  • modify existing products and processes and develop new ones
  • check and improve safety and quality control procedures in your own and suppliers' factories, from the raw material stage through to the finished product
  • research current consumer markets and latest technologies to develop new product concepts
  • select raw materials and other ingredients from suppliers
  • prepare product costings based on raw materials and manufacturing costs to ensure profitable products
  • audit suppliers or manage internal audits
  • run trials of new products - either alongside or together with product development
  • coordinate launches of new products
  • deal with any customer complaint investigations or product issues
  • compile, check and approve product specifications and labelling
  • undertake long-term projects with other departments, such as reducing waste by improving efficiency
  • work on packaging innovation and technology
  • conduct experiments and produce sample products
  • design the processes and machinery for making products with a consistent flavour, colour and texture in large quantities
  • build relationships with suppliers and customers
  • ensure products are profitable.
Depending on the sector you work in, you may also do the following additional tasks.
In food manufacturing:
  • develop the ability to repeat processes to ensure consistency and safety
  • liaise with technical and commercial colleagues in procurement, sales, technical services and marketing and distribution, and with official food inspection and hygiene agencies (this takes up a considerable proportion of time on the manufacturing side)
  • work with engineering and production to develop solutions to production issues, while maintaining food safety.
In retailing:
  • work with suppliers on quality issues and new product ideas
  • manage the safety, legality and quality of food produced.
In the public sector:
  • carry out administrative tasks and devise policy for government departments
  • implement enforcement roles in local authority environmental health departments.
Salary
  • Starting salaries for food technologists are in the region of £20,000 to £26,000.
  • With experience, salaries of £25,000 to £45,000 can be reached.
  • At a senior management level, you could earn up to £50,000+.
Higher salaries usually bring increased managerial responsibility.
You may be entitled to additional benefits, such as a performance-related bonus, private health plan, pension, company car (depending on the nature of the work) and ongoing professional development opportunities.
Income figures are intended as a guide only.
Working hours
Working hours in the retail and public sector are usually 9am to 5.30pm, Monday to Friday, possibly with some extra hours. However, shift work is usual in the private sector (for example in factories) up until management level.
Shift work may sometimes be required when running production trials, where auditing hours are according to the site production times. You'll need to be flexible, but where time is taken out of hours, you will in most cases be given the time back.
Part-time work and flexible hours may be available.
What to expect
  • Work is usually carried out in factories but may also take place in an office, laboratory or kitchen.
  • Jobs are available in most areas of the country as food manufacturers are found throughout the UK. Retail posts tend to be head-office based, often in London. Larger companies may expect you to work in different locations in the early part of your career. Public sector posts are with government agencies, such as the Food Standards Agency, and in local authorities.
  • Hygiene is very important and the dress code is appropriate to the function, which is normally smart/casual for the office or protective clothing with headwear for laboratory, kitchen and factory work.
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A career in immunology may suit you if you enjoy a challenge, have a strong life sciences background and are passionate about helping those in need
As a healthcare scientist (also known as a clinical scientist) working in immunology you'll help to diagnose, monitor and treat patients with a range of immune system disorders, including:
  • allergy
  • autoimmune disorders, where the body's defence system attacks itself (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis)
  • primary immunodeficiency - where part of the immune system is missing or doesn't function as it should
  • antibody deficiency.
You'll work as part of a team, including immunologists (medical doctors specializing in immunology) and biomedical scientists, to research the causes of patients' immune system problems.
Doctors who specialize in immunology follow a very different qualification route. For more information on this career path, see hospital doctor.
Responsibilities
As a healthcare scientist working in clinical immunology, you'll need to:
  • investigate patients' immune systems and research causes of problems
  • undertake a range of laboratory-based activities to help diagnose, monitor and treat patients with a variety of immunological disorders, including HIV, leukemia and type 1 diabetes
  • work with patients and run specialized patient clinics
  • help colleagues with the interpretation and validation of test results
  • help prescribe specific types of treatment for individual patients
  • discuss patient treatment plans with relevant staff such as immunologists, specialist nurses and pediatricians
  • produce reports and provide key information to medical staff about a patient's condition
  • maintain accurate and detailed records.
At a senior level, you may also need to:
  • teach or train medical students and other hospital staff
  • apply for and manage departmental and/or laboratory finances and resources
  • take responsibility for working towards targets
  • liaise with immunology colleagues on a regional or national basis.
Salary
  • Jobs in the NHS are usually covered by the Agenda for Change (AfC) pay rates consisting of nine pay bands. Trainee healthcare scientists are usually employed at Band 6, starting at £28,050.
  • Once qualified, you're likely to be employed on Band 7 (£33,222 to £43,041).
  • Salaries for principal and consultant scientists range from £42,414 (Band 8) to £102,506 (Band 9) for those working at the very highest level.
Those working in London and the surrounding areas may receive a high-cost area supplement of between 5% and 20% of their basic salary.
Salaries for healthcare scientists working for private companies, universities, government bodies and other organisations may vary.
Income figures are intended as a guide only.
Working hours
You'll generally work a 37.5 hour week, Monday to Friday. You may also be required to work a shift pattern.
Opportunities for part-time work are available.
If you enjoy team work in a laboratory environment and want to use your chemistry skills to contribute to the design and discovery of new medicines, then a career in medicinal chemistry could be for you
As a medicinal chemist you'll play a vital role in the process of drug discovery, helping to create new and more effective medicines. Using a range of chemistry techniques, primarily synthetic organic chemistry and data analysis tools, you'll design and create new pharmaceutically active molecules to combat a particular disease or condition.
You'll work closely with other scientists within a project team to understand and interpret biological testing of the compounds that you've created to see if they're effective. You'll then analyse the results of these tests to identify how the molecule could be improved until there's sufficient evidence that it works and is safe for testing in people.
While some organisations will advertise for a medicinal chemist, there are also a range of other job titles by which this role may be known - such as synthetic organic chemist, (graduate) scientist and research chemist. It's important to look beyond job titles to the job description, to ensure you're finding roles in medicinal chemistry.
Responsibilities
As a medicinal chemist, you'll need to:
  • plan and conduct scientific experiments in the lab to create and refine target molecules
  • follow health and safety guidelines and safe working practices
  • undertake data analysis to assess the results of experiments and the characteristics of the molecules produced
  • ensure the structure and purity of compounds are correct
  • write up experiments accurately
  • work closely with other scientific colleagues across different disciplines
  • use computational techniques to model the properties of new molecules
  • explore how it may be possible to 'scale up' production of useful compounds that are created
  • generate reports and deliver presentations about your work for colleagues, partners and clients
  • attend and contribute to internal and external project meetings
  • liaise with partners and clients and respond to queries about the progress of your research
  • keep up to date with scientific literature
  • undertake ongoing professional development by attending training and conferences.
Salary
Starting salaries for graduate medicinal chemists can range from £18,000 and £28,000, depending on the size and nature of the employer. For those with a PhD, starting salaries could be between £28,000 and £32,000.
Experienced/senior medicinal chemists can earn between £35,000 and £40,000.
Medicinal chemists who progress into scientific or technical leadership roles could earn between £45,000 and £50,000, while those moving into management positions could earn £50,000 to £55,000 or more.
Some employers will also offer additional benefits such as pension schemes, healthcare plans, share ownership schemes and other employee lifestyle benefits.
Income figures are intended as a guide only.
Working hours
Working hours are typically 9am to 5pm, Monday to Friday, often with an element of flexibility. Weekend or evening work is rare, but may occasionally be required at busy times or when undertaking independent study or research.
Part-time work is possible. Short-term contracts are also available, sometimes through recruitment agencies.
If you want to make a difference to people's lives through treating and preventing disease, making sure our food is safe or developing new green technologies, consider a career as a microbiologist
As a microbiologist you'll study microorganisms (microbes) in order to understand how they affect our lives and how we can exploit them. You'll focus on the biology of microorganisms at both the molecular and cellular level, as well as their ecology, including viruses, bacteria, archaea, fungi, algae and protozoa.
Your work is relevant in a variety of settings, including:
  • hospitals
  • agriculture
  • pharmaceuticals
  • biotechnology
  • education
  • the environment.
By understanding microbes, microbiologists aim to solve a range of problems affecting our health, the environment, climate and food and agriculture. This can include the prevention, diagnosis and control of infections and disease, as well as ensuring that food is safe, understanding the role that microbes play in climate change, and developing green technologies.
Types of microbiologist
Microbiology is a vast subject which overlaps with other areas of life sciences, such as molecular biology, immunology and biochemistry.
Specialist areas include:
  • medicine
  • healthcare
  • research
  • agriculture and food safety
  • environment and climate change.
Responsibilities
Tasks vary depending on your area of specialism. For example, healthcare scientists working in microbiology will be involved in preventing, diagnosing and controlling the spread of infections, whereas those working in manufacturing may be involved in quality control, checking for signs of contamination.
Depending on your areas of expertise, you'll typically need to:
  • monitor and identify microorganisms
  • track microorganisms in a range of environments
  • monitor and assess samples from a range of sources
  • follow regular sampling schedules within a specific environment
  • use a variety of identification methods, including molecular techniques, to test samples
  • develop new techniques, products and processes
  • develop and plan methods to prevent the spread of disease
  • develop and register new medicines, vaccines, diagnostic tests and pharmaceutical products
  • plan, implement and evaluate new products in clinical trials
  • collect samples from different types of environments, such as agricultural sites
  • develop products such as enzymes, vitamins, hormones and antimicrobials
  • grow microbial cultures, e.g. for use in the food and drink industry or in agriculture
  • work with specialist computer software to undertake studies and research
  • manage and oversee laboratory work.
You may also need to:
  • plan and organise resources and activities
  • maintain accurate and up-to-date records
  • write up research findings and produce reports
  • keep up with new research and attend national and international conferences and other events
  • liaise with colleagues from non-scientific departments
  • provide information and advice to colleagues and external bodies.
Salary
  • Jobs in the NHS for microbiologists working as healthcare scientists are usually covered by the Agenda for Change (AfC) pay rates, consisting of nine pay bands. Trainee healthcare scientists are usually employed at band 6, on a starting salary of £26,565.
  • Once qualified, you're likely to be employed on band 7 (£31,696 to £41,787). Salaries for principal and consultant scientists range from £40,428 (band 8) to £100,431 (band 9), depending on your experience and training.
  • Salaries for higher education lecturers in microbiology usually follow a nationally agreed pay spine. See the University and College Union (UCU) website for details.
  • Research and development work in pharmaceutical firms, public health laboratories and medical research council units tends to attract higher salaries.
Income figures are intended as a guide only.
Working hours
You'll usually work 9am to 5pm, Monday to Friday, although if you're working as a healthcare scientist in the NHS you may be on-call.
Larger employers may provide flexible working schemes.
Part-time work is possible.
Nanotechnologists push the boundaries of interdisciplinary science to create new materials, methods or procedures based on nano-scale particles and interactions
Nanotechnologists manipulate matter on the nanoscale (one billionth of a metre), developing new materials and equipment as well as drugs and diagnostic tools. Nanotechnology encompasses science, physics, chemistry, biology, engineering and computer science.
Their work involves designing and conducting experiments based around observing nano-scale systems (either organic or inorganic) in their given field, often with the aid of other researchers across several disciplines. The information is then analysed to develop practical applications of the results, such as a new material, device or procedure. Computational research can also be carried out using simulated nano-scale experiments and systems to increase theoretical knowledge and aid in the design and development of practical experiments.
Nanotechnology research is often collaborative between different departments or institutions and crosses the boundary between academia and industry. As a nanotechnologist you'll often have a PhD, and will use the connections and networks developed during your studies to form the foundation of a large knowledge base central to your work.
Responsibilities
Work is usually laboratory based, but its exact nature can depend on whether you work in industry or academia. The responsibilities in both lines of work are often the same and you'll need to:
  • plan and conduct experiments to investigate and analyse nano-scale systems
  • operate, or design and construct, complex instrumentation
  • extrapolate data to develop theories to explain experimental results
  • write up results in reports and/or scientific papers or books
  • arrange the testing of products or materials
  • develop new products and ways of applying new methodology
  • maintain accurate records of results
  • write applications for funding
  • collaborate with other scientists, often including those from other disciplines
  • develop specialist skills and expertise
  • work within health and safety regulations
  • teach or lecture students or trainees
  • develop innovative methods to improve existing products or procedures
  • consider profit/loss margins in any work carried out
  • keep up to date with advances in your field of study and wider research through specialist literature and meetings
  • disseminate new findings at departmental, institutional or national meetings and conferences, including presenting to a variety of audiences
  • manage individual projects and pieces of work
  • at higher levels, manage a research team (including technicians and support staff) or a group of research students.
Salary
  • PhD studentships usually come with a tax-free stipend of around £15,000, although some may be higher than this if industry funded.
  • Nanotechnologists working in research often earn between £25,000 and £35,000 once they've completed their PhD.
  • At a senior level, nanotechnologists can earn between £30,000 and £40,000. Salaries at this level vary between sectors.
  • University professors or similar can earn upwards of £60,000.
Larger companies typically offer higher salaries than smaller firms, but in a small company the opportunity to take on more responsibility may arise at an earlier stage.
There's a nationally agreed single-pay spine in place for higher education roles in most institutions in the UK. See the University and College Union (UCU) for details.
Income figures are intended as a guide only.
Working hours
You'll typically work a 37-hour week, although you might have to put in overtime to meet deadlines. In academia, you might have to occasionally work irregular hours due to teaching responsibilities or limitations on equipment access time. Nanotechnologists in industry may have to work to fit in with shift patterns or commercial deadlines.
Part-time work may be possible.
In academia, contract lengths may be dependent on funding grants.
If you have a pharmacology or related degree, laboratory experience and enjoy working collaboratively, you could be working in a cutting-edge field researching and developing new and existing drugs
Pharmacologists aim to understand how medicines and other drugs work so they can be used effectively and safely. They also conduct research to aid drug discovery and development.
The work involves investigating how drugs interact with biological systems. As a pharmacologist, you could be carrying out in vitro research (using cells or animal tissues) or in vivo research (using whole animals) to predict what effect certain drugs might have on humans.
Your work is used to:
  • discover new and better medicines
  • improve the effectiveness and safety of current medicines
  • understand how and why people react differently to different drugs
  • find out why some drugs cause addiction or unwanted side-effects.
There's a high level of collaboration with other scientists involved in this role, and it's typical to share your results with colleagues through meetings, reports and conferences.
Types of pharmacologist
You can choose to specialize in one area of pharmacology, such as:
  • cardiovascular pharmacology
  • neuropharmacology
  • psychopharmacology
  • veterinary pharmacology.
Closely related fields include toxicology, biochemistry and DMPK (drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics).
Clinical pharmacologists are qualified doctors with training in clinical pharmacology.
Responsibilities
As a pharmacologist, you'll need to:
  • design, plan and conduct controlled experiments and clinical trials to improve understanding of a drug's activity
  • use computers, high technology measuring systems and other sophisticated equipment to collect, analyse and interpret complex data
  • apply and develop the results of research to work through a variety of applications, such as new products, processes, techniques and practices
  • draw up proposals for future developmental tests
  • organise and oversee tests of new drugs and medicines, ensure quality control and secure approval for their use
  • liaise with regulatory authorities to ensure compliance with local, national and international regulations
  • plan, coordinate and supervise the duties of other technical staff and train or mentor early-career pharmacologists.
You'll disseminate the results of your work to others and will need to:
  • write original papers based on your findings for submission to specialist publications
  • attend scientific meetings and conferences in order to present posters, give talks, and listen to presentations from other pharmacologists and key opinion leaders
  • keep up to date with other pharmacological research by reading specialist literature.
Salary
  • PhD studentships, which allow you to study for a PhD while also carrying out research work, usually pay a stipend. The national minimum doctoral stipend for 2018/19 is £14,777, but some employers will pay more.
  • Salaries for postdoctoral positions in academia range from £25,000 to around £40,000.
  • Lecturers with the right combination of qualifications and experience can earn over £55,000. See the University and College Union (UCU) Salary Scalesfor details. Work at a senior level or with significant experience in industry can attract salaries of £35,000 to in excess of £80,000.
Salaries in industry tend to be higher than those in academia, and pharmacologists with a PhD are likely to earn more.
Income figures are intended as a guide only.
Working hours
Although you'll typically work Monday to Friday, 9am to 5pm, you'll need to be available to monitor and manage experiments. This can include some weekend, evening or shift work.
Part-time work and flexible working arrangements are available, and career breaks may be possible. Consultancy work is an option once you become more experienced.
If you have an inquisitive mind and enjoy planning and working on experiments, you could be suited to a career as a research scientist
As a researcher within life sciences, you'll be primarily involved in planning and conducting experiments and analyzing results - either with a definite end use, such as to develop new products, processes or commercial applications, or to broaden scientific understanding in general.
You'll usually carry out your experiments and research on your own, but you'll typically be part of a larger team and will share your findings and relevant information with professional colleagues. This is sometimes done at international conferences or through the publication of research papers.
You can find employment in commercial or government laboratories, hospitals and higher education institutions.
Types of work
There are a range of disciplines within life sciences in which you could choose to specialize, including:
  • bioinformatics
  • biotechnology
  • cancer studies
  • genomics
  • microbiology
  • neurosciences
  • pharmacology
  • physiology
  • plant sciences
  • stem cell research.
The work is close to the medical sciences but also crosses over into other areas such as biochemistry.
Responsibilities
The exact nature of the work depends on your level of seniority, the specific area of life sciences you work in and whether you're in an industrial or academic setting. However, it's likely that you'll need to:
  • create and conduct experiments
  • process and analyze results and data
  • communicate results to the scientific community via published papers
  • collaborate with industry/academia to apply the results of research and develop new techniques, products or practices
  • present ongoing work and findings to colleagues at academic conferences, and summaries the nature of the research, methodology and results
  • carry out field work to inform research
  • teach, demonstrate to or supervise students (in academia) and train and supervise other members of staff
  • devise or help to draw up new research proposals and apply for funding
  • work in multidisciplinary teams, in different faculties or schools in academia, and in different functions of the business in industry
  • carry out peer reviews of written publications and presentations to validate theories and inform research
  • keep up to date with the work of other scientists
  • attend academic conferences across the world and regularly read industry journals.
Salary
  • PhD studentships, which allow you to study for a PhD while also carrying out research work, usually come with a stipend. This is typically set at the minimum UK Research and Innovation rate of £14,777, but some may be higher than this.
  • Research scientists who have completed an MSc, MPhil or PhD typically earn in the region of £25,000 to £40,000.
  • University professors or senior researchers with high levels of responsibility, such as at principal investigator level, can achieve salaries of £50,000 to £75,000.
Starting salaries are comparable between academia and industry, but private sector salaries at senior levels tend to be higher, particularly within the pharmaceutical and biotechnology areas.
Income figures are intended as a guide only.
Working hours
In academia, hours are fairly standard at approximately 37 hours per week, usually from 9am to 5pm. You may sometimes be required to stay after hours or to go in at weekends to complete experiments, but most organizations offer flexible working arrangements to accommodate this.
If you're based in industry, you may have to work to fit in with shift patterns and commercial deadlines.





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